Labor is a socially useful activity. The difference between labor and work Types and boundaries of the division of labor

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RELATIONSHIP OF THE CONCEPTS “LABOR” AND “WORK”

It is known that the successful development of production in modern conditions largely depends on the competitiveness of personnel. And it is achieved by constant training of the workforce, improving its qualifications, strategically determining the number of workers and professional guidance at a given moment and in a given production. Traditionally, in the domestic economic literature, the term “labor force” is understood as the ability to work of a certain quality.

Labor power is the physical and spiritual abilities of a person, which are used by him in the labor process to create goods or provide services. Labor power represents the potential ability to work, and labor itself is the functioning labor force (functioning ability).

The content of work largely determines the degree of a person’s satisfaction with his work and, as a consequence of this, often acts as one of the leading factors in the stability of production teams. The study of labor functions from the point of view of their content, creative richness, and variety of tasks to be solved assumes that the worker as a participant in the labor process acts as a carrier of information.

The continuous development of production and the introduction of the achievements of modern science cause a rapid growth in the need for qualified workers, increase the requirements for the quality of training of workers, and require additional costs. Now is the time when it is necessary to pay closer attention to systematic training, and especially to the retraining of qualified specialists. This will allow us to respond more quickly and effectively to socio-economic changes in the country.

Without a doubt, the issue of human resources is of a strategic nature for both large successful and small firms. At the same time, the personnel management system at most enterprises does not correspond to the strategy of market reforms, which significantly hinders the ability to implement programs of sustainable stabilization, revitalization of production and structural restructuring of the economy, improving the quality and competitiveness of Russian products. Domestic entrepreneurs need to learn that the organization’s personnel represent the main value, and this is the main thing in understanding the process of managing an organization.

Let us analyze the main aspects of the content of the concept “business organization”. The concept of “organization” can be defined as “a systematic, conscious association of people’s actions, pursuing the achievement of certain goals.” An organization cannot exist on its own, since its existence depends on the surrounding external environment, which influences everything that happens within the organization.

A business organization is an organization whose activities are aimed at creating added value through the production and sale of a product needed in the market. The success and financial condition of the organization depend on the quality of work of each person included in the organization, since the totality of the results obtained in the work forms the product that the organization provides to the external environment and on the quality of which the effective existence of the entire organization as a whole depends. Not a single organization will be able to form, much less exist, if its purpose is not defined - that for which it exists.

The definition of purpose can be given in two ways - for external observers, users of the organization's products and for employees involved in the functioning process. The main task of human resource management is the most effective use of employee abilities in accordance with the goals of the enterprise and society. The role of human resources in ensuring successful operations, competitiveness of the enterprise and products is extremely high. Thus, the quality of the product directly depends on both personnel and management. Product quality today is the most important condition for the competitiveness of an enterprise. By quality of work, the authors understand activities aimed at obtaining a high-quality result. Therefore, the quality of work is a process that occurs at the individual level, i.e. actions performed by a person to achieve goals in an organization.

To better understand the essence of the quality of work in an organization, let’s consider its content, organization and implementation. It should be noted that this study is limited to studying the content of work quality as a set of tasks and actions performed by an employee to achieve a quality result in his work.

The receipt by an organization of a certain product (result of activity) depends on many conditions. One of the main things is that each person in the organization performs certain work as an activity aimed at obtaining results. In addition, much depends on the chosen personnel management system and the personal qualities, experience and knowledge of managers. If management is carried out ineffectively, then even the most qualified personnel will not work with full efficiency, they will be used ineffectively.

The authors believe that the concept of “quality of work” should be separated from the concept of “function”. The function describes mainly the content side of the activity being performed. Work, in turn, includes not only the content, but also the executive side of the activity, as well as the organizational one. Actions, depending on the type of resource, can be combined under the concept of “function”. A function is a specific type of activity required to transform an individual resource into a total final product. In order for functions to be performed, they must be shared among people in the organization. Function means a specific action performed by a person or organization within the division of labor in society. Depending on the organization, its interaction with the external environment, the complexity and dynamism of the external environment, the number of functions may change. A. Fayol believed that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities - functions. In total, he identified six functions: commercial, technical, security, financial, accounting and administrative.

The actions to create a specific product can be combined under the concept of “process”. There is another understanding of the process: a set of activities in which one or more types of resources are used as input, and as a result of this activity a product is created that is valuable to the consumer. In addition, the process is determined by a set of actions and operations aimed at obtaining results and is supported by the organization’s information system. Work in an organization combines the concepts of “function” and “process”; it can be represented as a set of tasks and operations that a person needs to perform to transform available resources into a created product. To create this product, the organization must transform existing resources. Activities for transforming resources - functions - can be divided into tasks depending on the product being created. In turn, the process of creating a product is divided into operations depending on the resources used. The totality of tasks and operations performed in an organization constitutes the work of the entire organization, which is divided among workers, taking into account the horizontal and vertical division of work. Thus, the content side of the work of an individual employee in an organization represents a certain set of tasks and operations. Let's look at the fundamental differences between labor and work.

1. The work is aimed at obtaining results. The result of the work is measurable and objective. The value of the work performed is determined by people in market relations. Labor is associated with the efforts made in the process of human activity. The assessment of these efforts is subjective.
2. The work has different characteristics (in terms of content) of the beginning and end of the cycle. In addition to the performers in the work, there is a source of work and recipients of the result. Work is divided according to goals, tasks, operations, the implementation of which leads to results. Labor as a process is homogeneous and has a detailed division into operations, techniques and movements. The source of labor is human activity, and the recipient of labor is the performer.
3. The process of performing work involves the use of equipment and technology to perform operations, solve problems and achieve goals. Labor is associated with human actions using available technology, precise and clear descriptions of what and where to do, actions are subject to the technological process and require mental and physical stress.
4. The human qualities required in work are determined by the specifics of the tasks being solved and the goals set. To perform the job, the employee’s actions must contain effort, perseverance, diligence, conscientiousness, direction, and initiative. Labor is associated with precise actions, movements and techniques in time.
5. The relationship between an employee and an organization is based on the exchange of results obtained in work - wages and products produced.
6. Work management includes the design of work, the construction of work relationships, the division of powers and responsibilities. Labor management is associated with costs, the need to compensate for efforts and the integrity of employees. Labor management at the organizational level comes down to its division and rationing, and the creation of working conditions. Labor organization allows you to save human and raw material resources and eliminate time wastage.

Labor management is of little use in a business organization due to the problem of its objective measurement and the lack of a direct relationship between labor and a specific result. But some of the results of work research, such as techniques and methods, may be useful to individual workers, since their use will improve individual productivity.

Thus, we can conclude that work is objectively measurable actions aimed at achieving a set goal. The concept of “labor” is associated with subjective judgments about the efforts expended by an individual in one direction or another. Work in the organization is very diverse in content. In this regard, it is advisable to consider various types of work and their classification according to the regulations for execution, the direction and comparability of the result, and the interaction of workers.

1. According to the work regulations. In regulated work, the employee’s actions are determined by the instructions given by the technology. When performing regulated work, an employee does not introduce elements of novelty and personal contribution into it. The results of regulated work are measured in quantitative terms and depend not so much on the individual abilities of the employee, but on the possibility of realizing these abilities in the existing regulations.

In innovative work, the employee’s actions are aimed at creating a new product, a previously unknown item, or developing a new production method. In this case, the obtained work result depends on the personality and professional potential of the employee and is manifested when he is used in the activities of the organization. Obtaining the result of innovative work is determined by creative abilities and depends on the employee himself.

2. According to the direction of the result. The results of the work are aimed at creating a product by the organization intended for a consumer or client outside the organization. Linear departments participate in the creation of a product: supply, production, sales, marketing, R&D. The results of the work are aimed at creating a product needed within the organization and are assessed based on changes in the organization’s activities. Results related to administration and organizational development are aimed at ensuring the activities of the organization.
3. By comparability and repeatability of the result. Functional work is associated with solving tasks of similar content, achieving identical goals and performing similar actions. The results obtained in the work have a time periodicity and are comparable to each other. Project work is associated with the execution and implementation of actions and tasks of different content aimed at achieving results. The content of the work changes significantly after each execution, there is no clear time periodicity, and the results are difficult to compare.
4. On the interaction of workers when performing work. Individual work is performed with a minimum degree of interaction between workers and high autonomy of their activities. Autonomy describes the extent to which a job provides the employee with freedom and independence in determining the work schedule and actions used to achieve the desired result. The amount of autonomy depends on the person.

Group work is carried out with the maximum degree of interdependence between workers. Obtaining results depends on the interaction of workers during the work process.

Obviously, the classification features reveal the substantive side of the work. The content of the work is a set of tasks and actions that must be performed to obtain results in the work. Differences between types of work show its qualitative characteristics and leave an imprint on the execution process. From the above it follows that the concept of “work” contains some duality. On the one hand, work has a substantive side - a set of tasks and actions. On the other hand, work as an activity aimed at obtaining a result is a process in which this result is created and the individual personal abilities and skills of the employee are manifested.

Let's consider work as a process to create a product. The entire process of performing work can be divided into separate stages performed by each employee, but at the same time, each stage of the work must preserve the type of process. This means that the worker receives the work, completes it, and passes it on down the chain. The performance of work in an organization by an individual employee is a process of transforming a resource into a product through the implementation of certain actions, the use of technology and the necessary methods.

Work can also be represented as an action that a worker needs to perform to complete it. In any work, even monotonous and manual work, it is possible to identify a cycle of actions during which an action is performed and work is performed.

Thus, the activities of performing work have a beginning, the actual execution of the work, and the completion of the work. The process of performing work, as a rule, is observable, and the actions of starting and completing it are hidden from observation, but, like the process of execution, they require internal effort and attention from the employee. In addition, work can be viewed as actions to create a result.

To create a result at work, the employee is required to take actions that are different in content and focus: preparing for work, performing the work and maintaining the result. It is a mistake to reduce work only to functional activities, since organizational activities are equally important. At the preparatory stage, the quality of work and productivity are laid down, and neglect to preserve and transfer the result of the work leads to its loss.

The work of every employee in an organization must include organizational mechanisms that promote coordination and interaction among workers. In the content of the work, three interrelated types of relationship building can be noted: authority, responsibility and control.

Authority consists of the employee's right to demand all necessary resources to perform the job. Responsibility lies in the actions that an employee performs to perform the job. Control is expressed in reporting on performance results and achievement of intended goals. Work as an object of management is the place where the united and coordinated efforts of three categories of workers are applied: performer, specialist and manager.

A contractor is a direct employee who ensures that specific work is performed and results are obtained. The specialist ensures the functionality and use of technology, and the connection of work into a single process. The manager divides the work between employees and coordinates the processes during their implementation.

Work is the result of the division of tasks available in the organization. Based on the nature of actions and required qualities, tasks in an organization are divided into three groups:

1) tasks, the implementation of which requires action according to the plan;
2) tasks related to solving problems and actions to prevent their occurrence;
3) tasks aimed at developing and improving the process of performing work and the result obtained.

For a systematic understanding of work and its content, it is necessary to consider the place of work in the organization. Based on the presentation of work as a process, the authors proposed diagrams of relationships between employees in the organization. The process of performing work occurs through the interaction of workers and managers who provide it. Work in an organization is a directed process from received resources to the final product. For a worker, this means there are two threads:

input (resources needed to complete the work);
output (obtained work results).

The actions necessary to perform the job become the basis for the requirements for the employee. The main document regulating the powers and actions of an employee, his relationships at work, is the job description. Relationships at work, in turn, are a necessary tool for solving problems that arise during the performance of work, as well as an element of organizational development.

The manager performs the following set of management functions:

ensures the performance of work through managerial interaction with the employee;
establishes rules and norms of behavior;
provides the employee with authority and controls the performance of the work.

The job includes the actions of the worker, the tools used, and the methods used. From the point of view of the content of work, actions determine its executive side, tools reflect the technical side, and methods reflect the organizational side.

From the perspective of performing work, the employee’s actions are a reflection of his motivation, the tool used reflects his skills, and the methods reflect his existing knowledge. When performing work, it is important to distinguish the product from the result. The result of work is, as a rule, the very fact of a change in the state of any thing or group of objects, and a product should be understood as any object whose change in state was due to the actions of the worker. The result obtained in the work is a measure of the achievement of the goal set in the work. Another important aspect of an employee’s activity is that all work, activity and behavior in general are made up of specific actions that lead to a result. The reason for the employee’s impulses and actions is the goal he has conceived and set, his interest in doing his job.

In connection with the development of technology, the field of knowledge, and the increasing pace of changes in the external environment, work management becomes especially relevant. In order for an organization to achieve its goals and produce a product that is competitive in the market, each employee must have and perform a certain job. In order for work performance to lead the organization to its goals, management must manage the work in the organization.

To manage work, a certain set of methods is used that allow:

create new works;
know, measure and evaluate the existing state of work;
influence the content and organizational side of the work;
control the work process;
get an idea of the activities of each employee;
have a document regulating the performance of work;
know what qualities are needed to do the job. The founder of scientific management F. Taylor at the beginning of the 20th century. pointed to division of labor and work design as elements of the administration function, along with planning and distribution of responsibilities. Taylor's work is a task that must be completed by a worker or by the combined efforts of workers and management. The task explains in detail what must be done and how, and indicates the exact time for completing the work. Task plans are designed to ensure good and thorough work.

Among foreign researchers of the work, it is necessary to note F. Gilbert and L. Gilbert, who expanded the study of the work to the performer, his movements and the time spent. This made it possible to design rational methods of performing work and establish standards for working time. The first to raise the question of effective performance of work in an organization was G. Emerson. To increase productivity, he proposed twelve principles of work organization, some of which directly relate to the performance of work by the employee. One of the founders of the study of work in our country was A.K. Gastev. He viewed the work from the perspective of designing and organizing the workplace, learning to use new methods of doing work.

A revolutionary view of work as a result of activity was the concept of management by objectives by P. Drucker. Work is presented in the form of actions aimed at achieving goals, and “... a goal is nothing more than a declaration of the required result.” The logic of management by objectives requires:

clear definition of goals or desired results of work;
formation of real programs to achieve them;
systems for assessing work parameters by measuring specific

results by stages of achieving the goals.

However, in this concept the actions to achieve goals and the employee’s motivation when performing work were not disclosed.

The modern way of presenting work in the form of a project is a concentration of advanced management concepts and theories, and the presence of the main attributes of work - goals, actions and results - shows the validity of such a comparison. Financial independence, time dependence, client assessment of quality, and flexibility make presenting work in the form of a project a promising direction for designing work in modern organizations. Work management is one of the important functions of management and takes into account not only the need to perform work, but also the capabilities of workers. The basic tools of job management include the following: analysis, design, description, specification, redesign, job value assessment and job description.

Job analysis is a procedure for objectively describing the job, its content, the employee's responsibilities and working conditions. Job analysis allows you to obtain information about existing work, assess its adequacy to the goals and objectives of the organization, and identify the reasons for the low level of work performance and potential. The work analysis is based on the following information:

description of the work performed;
requirements for actions and behavior at work;
equipment and technologies used;
working conditions, financial and non-financial incentives;
knowledge, skills, personal qualities necessary to perform the job.

When analyzing work you must:

1) take into account the organizational level of work performance;
2) compare jobs with each other, with other jobs and their place in the organizational structure;
3) compare data with organizational aspects on issues of subordination and interaction in the work process;
4) monitor the continuity of the technological process of the work in question using the technological map.

The result of the job analysis is the basis for the following actions:

drawing up requirements for the employee;
justification of job responsibilities;
determination of compensation, wages and bonuses;
identifying organizational problems in performing work;
justification for the need to redesign the work. Job design is the process of creating a specification

tasks for a specific employee in an organization, including the sequence of their solution, taking into account work relationships, interdependence with other tasks and the required result. Job design is one of the management tasks, the purpose of which is to design work in such a way that its implementation will lead to the achievement of the organization's goals. Design is aimed at creating work from a set of tasks and operations, the solution and implementation of which is necessary for the organization.

There are two main approaches to designing work in an organization. The first, the most common, is that based on the goals and functions of the organization, a job is first designed, and a person is selected for an already known and defined job. In the second approach, a person, his personal qualities and abilities are the basis for designing work. Depending on the approach to designing the work, the content and organizational side of the work will be different, but the structure of the work will retain the fundamental points.

Job evaluation is relative in nature because the job is evaluated in comparison with other jobs in the organization. The result of this process is a clear definition of the hierarchy of payment for work performed. Formal, systematic evaluation of a job determines its relative value in the organization and its corresponding reward. Personnel performance assessment has been and remains one of the most important areas of personnel management. It is designed to help identify ways to improve the performance of people working in an organization.

Currently, there is no single systematic approach to the interpretation of the concept of personnel assessment, its essence and meaning. Performance appraisal can be defined as the process of collecting and analyzing information about how employees perform their assigned functions and determining the extent to which their work behavior, performance and individual characteristics meet the requirements of the organization and management. Performance appraisal is also a process that involves identifying and communicating to the employee how he is performing and, ideally, developing a plan to improve his performance.

Research shows that regular and systematic personnel assessment has a positive effect on employee motivation, professional development and growth. At the same time, assessment results are an important element of human resource management, since they provide the opportunity to make informed decisions regarding remuneration, promotion, dismissal of employees, their training and development. There are several methods for evaluating work. For example, the factorial method: an objective assessment of the work is carried out for each factor, and the further summary assessment of the factors gives an overall rating of the work, which allows you to choose the appropriate tariff, an acceptable and fair amount of payment for the work performed.

A job description is the main document regulating the relationship between an employee and an organization. It is intended to inform the person holding the position about the tasks, distribution of rights and responsibilities, interaction with other people working in the organization, etc. Thus, a job description serves as an auxiliary means of managing people in an organization and regulates not only actions related to the performance of work, but also attitudes towards work. The job description must take into account the organizational structure, determine the employee’s purpose in the organization and thereby contribute to the building of management relations in the organization.

Thus, there are certain methods of managing work in an organization, with the help of which you can change not only the content of the work, but also its organizational side, and therefore the actions, responsibilities and interactions of employees at work. This will make it possible to achieve better compliance of the work performed in the organization with its goals.

Having properly designed work and selecting workers with the appropriate level of knowledge and skills, selected according to job requirements, does not guarantee the organization's success in achieving its goals. It is necessary to ensure that every employee in the organization gets the job done and gets the desired results. The work can be achieved economically, i.e. exchanging work results for monetary reward (piecework form of payment). Another way to ensure work is completed is for the employee to receive monetary compensation for the time spent on work. This form of ensuring work is performed is a variable form of payment.

There are certain standards for performing work and obtaining results. Completing work and obtaining a result are made up entirely of the employee’s actions, and the nature and sequence of these actions depend on the person, his plans and motivation. The process of obtaining results begins with the desires and needs of the employee, since the tool and technologies used only guide his activities and allow him to achieve greater success in his work.

According to V. Vroom's expectancy theory, work for a person is a means, an instrument for satisfying needs. From the standpoint of ensuring the fulfillment of work in the organization and obtaining high results, work should be a goal for the employee, which requires motivation of the employee by the work itself, especially since the characteristics of behavior that he needs to display are determined by the work and its content.

The role of the job execution manager in this case is not only to recruit the necessary people and motivate them, but also to make the work interesting for the employee and develop the qualities important for its performance. To do this, it is necessary to know and understand the needs and desires of the employee, what motivates him to action and what he strives for.

In relation to the activities of an employee in an organization, the characteristics of actions become important, but not in themselves, but in connection with the result obtained in the work. In other words, the employee must be interested in the result itself. At the same time, the work can be structured in such a way that the employee will try to do it better and achieve higher results, using existing knowledge, skills, and individual abilities.

The employee's direct interest in the result contributes to achieving a better result, and the ability to perform the work will form the necessary attitude and interest in it. As a rule, during the work process, only part of the employee’s capabilities is used, and not only the skills and experience, but also the employee’s needs change. As technology advances, the nature of work changes, requiring greater personal investment from the employee. Personal contribution to work is not only the use of knowledge and skills, but also the solution of emerging problems, preventing their occurrence, it is also the creation of new things in work, product development and interpersonal interaction at work. Despite the development of modern technology, the performance of work and the achievement of results directly depend on the employee, and for personal contribution and obtaining high results in unregulated work, motivation is necessary as an internal driving force for improving the quality of the workforce.

Rofe A.I. Scientific organization of labor. - M.: MIC, 1998.

Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I. Management. - M.: Gardariki, 1998.
Taylor F. Scientific organization of labor // Management is a science and an art. - M.: Republic, 1992.
Morrisey J. Target management of an organization / Trans. from English; Edited by I.M. Vereshchagin. - M.: Sov. radio, 1979.
Peters T. Wow project // The Art of Management. 2000. No. 3. P. 44-57.

It is believed that it was labor that predetermined the development of human civilization and distinguished it from the animal world. It is the tendency to conscious activity that helps people become creators of their own destiny and seriously influence the world around them, changing it at their own discretion. In everyday life, we identify the concepts of work and labor, considering them synonymous. Are these categories really similar to each other, or are there differences between them?

Definition

Work– conscious activity of living beings aimed at transforming matter, satisfying physical and spiritual needs. In the process of labor, raw materials acquire new properties, old ideas acquire new content. In economics, this term is an integral part of the factors of production and consists of objects and means of labor.

Job is a purposeful human activity, a natural and inalienable right, which consists in the production of material goods, the provision of services, and the completion of tasks. Efforts are made precisely in order to obtain a tangible result, which can either be calculated (production, construction, agriculture) or assessed speculatively (law, programming, journalism).

Comparison

Both work and labor can be carried out on a voluntary basis or paid. It all depends on the status of the subject of legal relations and the conditions in which he finds himself. At the same time, forced labor is prohibited, as well as forced labor, and criminal liability is provided for the exploitation of a person. Participants in legal relations are endowed with freedom of self-realization, which manifests itself in conscious choice.

However, there are also differences between these categories. Firstly, the concept of “labor” is much broader: it includes, among other things, work. It can be paid or carried out on a voluntary (compulsory) basis. Secondly, the word “labor” is most often used in a positive sense, in opposition to routine processes. Work can have a negative meaning as a monotonous, daily task that must be completed no matter what.

Work is not always finished: it can continue indefinitely. This is eloquently evidenced by the myth of Sisyphus, who was punished by the gods to eternally lift a stone up a mountain. At the same time, the work is aimed at a result, which must be either measurable or speculative. The word "work" is used exclusively in relation to a person. The concept of “labor” is also used to describe other representatives of the animal world (bees, monkeys, plants).

Conclusions website

Scope of concepts. The meaning of the category “labor” is broader than the concept of “work”.
Final result. Work is always aimed at obtaining a specific benefit, while labor can be realized precisely through a process (“Sisyphean labor”).
Personification. The concept of “labor,” as a rule, can be applied to any living beings (bee labor - collecting honey), while work can only be applied to humans.
Emotional coloring. In the mass consciousness, work is usually called routine actions that take a lot of time, and work acts as creation, development, and the realization of goals and aspirations.
Availability/absence of payment. As a rule, work is carried out on a paid basis and is synonymous with the position or vacancy held. Labor can be performed both involuntarily (slave, convict) and free of charge (socially useful, volunteer).

Modern linguistics has confirmed the ideas of the great thinkers of the 19th and 20th centuries. that the language and way of thinking of a people are interconnected, that there is a close connection between the life of society and the language it speaks. Therefore, the people’s ideas about life, reality, their habits and ethical values, cultural attitudes (i.e., the picture of the world) are revealed and become understandable when analyzing the meaning and compatibility of words naming objects and phenomena of both the external and internal world of a person (about the linguistic picture of the world, see “Grapes”, No. 3, 2007). Such linguistic analysis makes it possible to trace how attitudes towards work have developed in society since ancient times (which is impossible for sociological research) and even to shake persistent cultural myths, in particular about the laziness of the Russian people.

In the Russian language there are two basic verbs and two names derived from them with the meaning of labor activity - WORK, WORK, WORK, WORK, which unite around them a variety of vocabulary naming the labor process, its varieties, parameters, evaluation. WORK, WORK, WORK, LABOR, often acting as synonyms, express purposeful and useful for people, creative activity that requires effort, the everyday goal of which is to obtain funds for human life support. WORK, LABOR are opposed to entertainment and play, as activities for the sake of pleasure. A sports game or playing sports can be called WORK only if they have a professional status that provides a means of livelihood.

WORK and WORK, WORK and WORK are not complete synonyms; there are substantive and associated combinability differences between them, specific to the Russian language. These differences are described in dictionaries of synonyms of the modern Russian language (for example, in the dictionary edited by Yu.D. Apresyan). WORK, LABOR express ethically more significant and always positively assessed labor activity, requiring intense human effort, and WORK, WORK - a more applied, utilitarian activity that can be assessed both positively and negatively. These content differences explain the different combinability of these words. You can “work honestly, persistently, conscientiously, selflessly,” cf. also “selfless, noble work”, but the combinations (?) “to work poorly, unconscientiously, dishonestly”, (?) “low-quality, careless work” look strange. The stylistically neutral verb WORK allows both types of combinability (cf. “work well, selflessly, conscientiously // poorly, dishonestly”, “selfless // shoddy work”).

For WORK, the effort, the activity itself, is in the foreground, therefore WORK is not analyzed, unlike WORK, in terms of the result, and for work the result is important (cf.: “perform, do the work”, but not “work”). “A lot of work” means a large amount of what needs to be done; “a lot of work” characterizes the amount of effort expended. The actualization of the idea of the result is also possible in derivative words that are formed from the verb WORK: “to develop, to develop, to process, to process something.” The ordinary goal of WORK - obtaining funds for human life support - is expressed in the derivative lexemes “earn, earnings” . WORK can be hired, forced (cf.: “give work”, “entrust work”, “work for someone”), for LABOR and WORK these meanings are irrelevant (you cannot * “give work”, * “receive work”, unlikely (?) “to work for someone”).

The differences in the compatibility of these words can only be explained historically, i.e. taking into account the historical memory of the modern Russian language, reflecting ideas about the labor process of our ancestors. The differences are related to the etymology of these lexemes, which go back to the Indo-European *orbhos ‘slave’; *ter- ‘to rub’ and Common Slavic *trudъ ‘heavy physical effort’ (see M. Vasmer . Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1986-1987), as well as with their history, reflected in the dictionaries of the Old Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, in special studies of Old Russian written monuments.

In the Dictionary of the Old Church Slavonic Language X - XI centuries. all meanings of the verb WORK are interconnected and express forced, slave work: 1) ‘to be in slavery’, 2) ‘to serve someone’, 3) ‘to work hard for someone’. During this period, the following meanings are noted for the verb WORK: ‘to make efforts’; 'suffer'; ‘lead an ascetic, martyr’s lifestyle’ (about monks and Orthodox ascetics); 'take care of somebody'; ‘tired, exhausted’ - and the meaning ‘to work’ is missing. To denote labor activity in that period, the verb “delati” was also used, which gradually loses its generalized meaning, being used in modern Russian with a specific object (“to do what”).

In the Dictionary of the Russian Language XI-XVII, in the Dictionary of I.I. Sreznevsky (“Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language.” St. Petersburg, 1893-1903) the main meaning of the verb WORK remains ‘to be in slavery, captivity, to be a slave’. Interpretations WORK record a significant transformation of its semantic structure, the following main meanings are identified: ‘to work, toil’; 'take care'; 'try'; ‘to make an effort’, ‘to suffer’, ‘to accomplish a feat’. The labor process, which forms the basis of human life, in these transformations is presented as a form of asceticism - through effort, hardship and suffering. Often the verb WORK is used in relation to the ascetic life of monks. Wed. examples from hagiographic literature: “Brotherhood cells are built by the brethren who want to live and work in that monastery.” “He was powerful in body and very strong, and in his work he was very courageous, as if he could work mightily in two or three.”

According to the Church Slavonic language and research by T.I. Vendina (see “From the Cyril and Methodius Heritage in the Language of Russian Culture,” M., 2007) in the minds of medieval people, the idea of suffering had a special meaning - it was interpreted as a kind of guarantee of human salvation. “Man “labors himself” in the name of the Lord, therefore the vector of “labor” is directed upward, from the life of the body (through suffering and torment) to the life of the spirit.” This is evidenced by many monuments of hagiographic and patristic Orthodox literature (for example, the “Punishments” of Metropolitan Daniel, the “Teachings” of St. Theodosius of Pechersk, the life of St. Sergius of Radonezh), in which work as a form of human salvation is opposed to idleness. Compare: “No one will be a parasite, no one will be idle, idleness is intercessory for all evil. For this reason, God first commanded Adam to work in paradise and maintain paradise, but after he was expelled from there, through labor and the sweat of his brow, the Lord commanded him to eat bread, and what was spoken to Adam was spoken to everyone. And Jesus, from the laziness of places, passing from the place on foot, laboring for our salvation, gave us an image” (from “Punishments” by Metropolitan Daniel).

Labor that requires effort, associated with suffering, but free, aimed at a person (in the language this is evidenced by the reflexive forms of the corresponding verbs - “work oneself”) is perceived as an activity that determines the norms of human existence, as self-affirmation of the individual, the subject of activity. It is WORK, WORK in the research of monuments of the ancient Russian language of the XIII-XV centuries. are noted as the most frequent words in the generalized meaning of the labor process. WORK is used in relation to the life of not only monks and Orthodox ascetics, but also ordinary people with their everyday worries, denoting free, not forced labor. The wide distribution of this verb is explained by the great influence of medieval monasteries on the development of Russian culture. In contrast to the Western European urban type of culture, Old Russian culture developed in many ways as a monastic culture, where the contradictions between the theological-church and everyday-practical levels of consciousness were resolved in the form of embracing various spheres of human activity with an ascetic monastic worldview. Historians and cultural scientists write about the influence of monastic culture on ancient Russian culture; this is also evidenced by the development of the content structure and use of the words WORK, WORK. In subsequent historical periods, the emerging trend in their meaning and use will continue - from the nomination of physical effort, suffering to the development of a generalized meaning of work activity, which at the same time has not lost its spiritual and moral meaning and is perceived in the modern Russian language as significant and valuable.

Words WORK , WORK, approaching in meaning to the words WORK, WORK, in the process of historical development of language and society under the influence of Christian culture (cf. from the “Teachings” of Theodosius of Pechersk: “They heard Paul say... “He who does not work, let him not eat”” ) are gradually losing the negative evaluative meanings associated with forced, servile, unworthy work. WORK, WORK become a neutral means in the Russian language to denote the ordinary labor process and professional activity, while retaining some features of the meaning of hired work, for earnings, “out of duty, need.” The development of the meaning of WORK from the expression of forced hard labor to a broad understanding of work as a natural form of human existence is accompanied by the expansion of the use of this verb to include institutions (“The pharmacy is open on Sunday”), mechanisms (“The TV does not work. The machine works silently”), and individual organs living organism (“The heart works well”). For WORK, such an expansion of meaning is not typical; it expresses only human activity.

Similar content changes to the verb WORK have been experienced by lexemes with the meaning of labor activity in many European languages. Thus, in German etymological dictionaries, a genetic connection is noted between the verb arbeiten and the Slavic “to work” in the meaning of “to work like a slave.” The common German Arbeit in the meaning of ‘hardship, need, heavy physical labor’ under the influence of Christian ideas, losing its negative assessment, becomes a neutral designation of human labor activity. But in none of the modern European languages, including Slavic, is there a verb similar to the verb WORK, which has preserved in modern Russian the sublime, spiritual, ethical assessment of the human labor process. It is unlikely that a lazy and passive people, as Western culturologists sometimes write about the Russian people, could preserve in their culture and language a sublime ethical understanding of the purpose of work and not waste the spiritual and moral attitude towards it, which arose with the adoption of Christianity and strengthened in the Middle Ages.

The history of the two Russian verbs WORK and WORK (and the names WORK and WORK derived from them) imprinted in the language the formation of the Orthodox work ethic. The orientation in the Middle Ages to the monastic ideal and in secular life formed in Rus' an understanding of the holiness of labor as a general category of religious consciousness. Work was considered a good deed, the basis of human morality, but only that work that did not obscure the main goal of human life - the desire to “live in God”, according to the Gospel commandments, and did not lead to the victory of the material over the spiritual. Many Russian philosophers and historians note the lack of attention of Orthodox culture (as opposed to Catholic and Lutheran) to everyday work, to the so-called “average” level of culture. The fact that economic, professional and social issues of labor in Orthodoxy have traditionally been given less attention than spiritual issues was not failed to be taken advantage of by socialist-Marxists, whose teachings in the late 19th - early 20th century received rapid and victorious spread in Russia, leading to the atheistic socialist revolution .

You can often hear or read that it was socialism that exalted the moral significance of labor, placing it at the foundation of the economic system, raising labor to the pinnacle of moral achievement. Referring to the fact that the Soviet slogan and principle “He who does not work, neither shall he eat” is a hidden quotation from the New Testament (from the letter of the Apostle Paul), an analogy is sometimes drawn between the socialist and Christian attitude to work as a moral achievement. The latter seems to be evidenced by socialist rhetoric, cf.: “Glory to the working people! Hero of socialist labor, labor feats, labor valor, shock labor,” etc. Much has been written about the political and ideological side of this problem, about the double morality of that time. For example, A.I. Solzhenitsyn sharply opposed the high positive assessment of labor policy in the era of socialism, recalling the destruction of motivation to work, that “it was under “socialism” that labor became a sworn burden,” primarily for the peasantry, about the forced labor mobilizations of city residents, about the heavy burden of women labor, etc., so there is no need to dwell on this issue in detail. But we want to show - with the help of linguistic analysis of socialist rhetoric - the fundamental differences in the socialist and Orthodox understanding of LABOR.

In the materials of the CPSU, official and newspaper texts of that period (giving preference to the sublimely spiritual word LABOR, and an abstract noun, rather than a more specific verb), labor is spoken of as the highest and absolute value, the measure of the meaning of human life. Wed. slogan and task set at one of the congresses of the CPSU: “To promote the transformation of labor into the first vital need of every Soviet person!” Wed. also an excerpt from the materials of one of the party conferences, in which “participation in labor” appears as the ultimate goal of this process, as the highest value: “Participation in social labor has become an integral feature of the way of life of a Soviet woman. Since 1970, women have accounted for 51% of workers and office workers. And although by the beginning of the 70s the process of attracting women to work in social production was basically completed, every year 2/3 of citizens newly involved in production in the 70s and early 80s were women. Currently, almost all able-bodied women use their guaranteed right to work according to their ability.” The purpose of labor in official and journalistic texts of that time is defined “for the benefit of the motherland”, the parameters of labor are characterized - productivity, quality, volume, labor standards, socialist attitude towards work, etc. But the specific producer of labor himself, the subject of the labor process, an individual when discussing labor, it is relegated to the background and acquires an instrumental function in the impersonal labor process. The instrumental function of a person is updated by the terms of the political economy of socialism such as “labor resources, labor reserves.” Socialist propaganda was aimed at the formation of an obedient producer, an impersonal “cog” in the system, at the formation of levers to control him as an instrument in a collective process, the purpose of which is connected with the veiled political and economic interests of those in power.

On the contrary, in Orthodoxy, labor, and not a person, performs instrumental functions; the goal of labor is a specific person, a working person. Work is aimed at cleansing the human soul from passions and vices, at improving man and his ascent to holiness. Therefore, as Ignatiy Brianchaninov says, not all work is useful: “What does it mean? work in the mind? This means carrying out monastic labor as a punishment for one’s sinfulness, in the hope of receiving forgiveness from God.” If a person works “with vanity, with boastfulness, with humiliation of others,” then “no matter how strong, long-lasting, materially useful for the monastery, it is not only useless for the soul, but also harmful, as it fills it with conceit, which has no place in the soul for any virtue.”

As we have seen, analyzing above the meaning and compatibility of the words WORK, WORK, much of the highly moral and spiritual understanding of WORK by our ancestors has entered the modern Russian language. “And although labor is no longer perceived as a martyr’s feat either in the literary language or in dialects, its value is determined precisely by this ethical motivation... Respect for selfless work, despite all the hardships and suffering, forms the basis of a person’s morality, forms the deep foundations of his attitude to life" (T.I. Vendina. "From the Cyril and Methodius heritage in the language of Russian culture").

Ideas about the fate of the words (and concepts) WORK, WORK, WORK, WORK in the Russian language would be incomplete if we did not consider the peculiarities of their use in journalism of the last turbulent and “market” years, 10 - 15 years. Language, like a living and sensitive organism, reacts to all changes in the socio-economic and moral sentiments of society. The political and socio-economic upheavals experienced by Russian society over the past two decades have led, in particular, to a decrease in the formality of mass media, increased spontaneity of Russian public speech, a weakening of its norms, jargon, the flourishing of language games, and the spread of reduced forms of expression. This could not but affect the use of the words in question. WORK with its sublime ethical potential in modern newspaper texts is often used ironically in relation to activities that are insignificant, useless and even illegal. For example: “One of the scammers, who also worked part-time at the local police department, developed a new plan.” Irony can arise contrary to the intentions of the author, who wants to use the verb WORK to give significance to the activity he is talking about. Therefore, in the reference book for State Duma deputies “Culture of Parliamentary Speech” (1994) it is not recommended to use WORK in everyday speech , for example, saying “He works in the government apparatus”; “We have 20 people working in our department” (it is recommended to use the neutral verb WORK instead). Note that WORK in modern newspaper texts is often used without irony to denote socially useless activities - WORK can be called any activity that is a source of income for the subject of the action or ordered by someone (Cf. “They worked mainly on trains or at train stations” - about professional beggars. “A professional worked here” - about a killer) . In the following example, irony arises as a result of a violation of the cause-and-effect relationship between work and income: “People are divided into those who work and those who earn.”

But modern man, as the heir to the culture of our ancestors, subtly senses the differences between WORK as a forced form of human existence and free, creative LABOR. This is eloquently evidenced by excerpts from an article written in our time of crisis: “The modern market, in which every employee, every organization is trying to make a product a commodity, that is, to find a partner capable of exchange, is characterized by an amazingly high level of competition. Therefore, it is not easy to find someone who will agree to take your product, who will agree to recognize it as a commodity, who will encourage you - you worked, and not just worked, and will reward you with the equivalent of labor for your efforts. And not every job can be fully translated into work: somewhere you made a mistake, somewhere you cheated, and more often the skill was not enough... “And is it necessary to work?” - a crazy thought will creep in... The temptation to do hackwork arises, then there is formal activity, the execution of work and attempts to sell its results, passing off the work as labor... But they will compensate me only for that part of the work that the buyer recognizes as labor. And there will be a lesson - work harder, work better” (A. Belkovsky, journalisti.ru). With these words I end my reflections on the essence of LABOR and WORK in the Russian language - the language of Russian culture.

Science has proven that the essence and evolution of man is connected with activity. Activity is a universal way to satisfy needs through an active, transformative attitude towards the world. Activities aimed at the normal functioning of the human body in the surrounding nature are called life activities.

Human life is studied by a variety of sciences. However, the basis of people’s lives is economic activity, which goes through four stages: production – distribution – exchange – consumption of goods and services.

Production is the process of creating material and other goods, i.e. human influence on objects and forces of nature in order to adapt them to satisfy certain needs.

We study 4 factors of production: labor, capital, land, entrepreneurial ability, the most important of which is labor. Labor is one of the types of activity. According to K. Marx, labor is the process of creating consumer values, i.e. goods that satisfy a specific human need.

The sages of all times and peoples sang hymns to work and the working man.

Aristotle: “The purpose of man is in rational activity.”

Aesop: “The true treasure for people is the ability to work.”

Voltaire: “Work relieves us of three evils: boredom, vice and want.”

Leonardo da Vinci: "Glory is in the hands of labor."

Balzac: “Constant work is the law of both art and life.”

The main goals of human activity include:

Material goods;

Power and glory;

Spiritual perfection.

The set of qualitative personality traits that influence the result of activity reflects the concept of “labor potential” and its components:

Ability to create social contacts;

Abilities and tasks;

Rationality of labor behavior;

Availability of knowledge and skills;

Supply on the labor market.

The factors of an individual’s labor potential include: health, morality (work ethic), creativity, activity, education, professionalism, working time resources, etc.

Scientific research data indicate that indicators reflecting the state of the main components of labor activity in Russian society have decreased over the years of market reforms. There is a deterioration in the health of the nation, a decline in the moral core of society, and a lack of work ethic. Creative potential has decreased significantly. In terms of the number of inventions, publications, references in the scientific literature and, finally, the number of Nobel laureates, the situation is not in Russia’s favor. Of the total number of domestic inventions, less than 1% are patented abroad; in the USA this figure reached 30%, in Switzerland – 40%. The share of different countries in the global patent fund is: USA - 30%, Germany - 20%, Japan - 10%, France - 8%, Russia - 1.5%.

The level of Russia's creative potential is largely determined by the low activity of the labor force. It is interesting that the nature of activity was studied most deeply and consistently by L. N. Gumilyov. The scientist called a person’s desire for something new, to change the usual, traditional, “violation of inertia” passionarity (Latin passio - passion). L.N. Gumilev emphasized that passionarity as a special energetic state of a person applies not only to individual individuals, but also to large groups. Based on the signs of passion and direction of interests, the author of this concept proposed a classification of people. He identified such types as “philistines, vagabonds, criminals, business people, scientists, adventurers, prophets...”.

Today, the decline in the activity of the country's population is explained by many reasons, including the lack of national ideas, shifting values, confusion of people in new conditions, disappointment with reforms and much more.

Problems and contradictions in education are noted. In this indicator, we are significantly behind the world level. Particularly impressive are the changes in the educational attainment of the American workforce. By the beginning of 2000, about 83% of all US adults aged 25 years and older had completed secondary education, and 24% had completed higher education. In 1996, 45,000 doctoral degrees and 406,000 master's of science degrees were awarded in the United States. By 2000, the average number of years of education for the working-age population reached 13 years, which is one year higher than the level of secondary school. Thus, by aggregate measures of educational attainment, the American workforce is one of the best prepared in the world. As for the professional and qualification structure of the labor force, by 2000 the share of those employed primarily in mental work (“white collar”) reached almost 60% of the economically active population in the United States. The share of people who work primarily in manual labor, which includes workers of all skill levels and the so-called “service workers” (cooks, waiters, medical personnel, etc.), is slowly but steadily declining.

The specialized literature most often reflects the quantitative aspect of our lag. But there is another side - differences in the degree of use of acquired knowledge in production. Until recently, only 10% of graduates of technical universities work in engineering specialties, and the rest work wherever necessary. This initially reduces the effectiveness of education.

Thus, the facts indicate that it is necessary to carry out targeted reforms that strengthen Russia’s labor potential. This applies to all forms of manifestation of labor potential.

This can be achieved only through efforts to motivate labor and stimulate active, creative, highly qualified labor.

An act of human activity includes elements:

Subject (individual or group);

Means of achieving the goal (tools, experience, etc.);

Subject (what the activity is aimed at);

Result

Thus, activity is a form of manifestation of the human being and the activity of the individual. An activity makes sense if it brings results or satisfies a particular need of people.

Labor is a socially useful activity. The difference between labor and work Types and boundaries of the division of labor

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